Niccolo Machiavelli
Unlike the monarchical regimes of the Renaissance Era, Italy remained the only major area in which vigorous communal life had weathered the storms of wars and invasions, the only area where individual republicanism existed. The virtual destruction of the German Empire by the papacy in the 13th century and the later enslavement of the papacy by the French monarchy, gave the independent Italian city-states new opportunities for self-affirmation and increased self-confidence.
In 1512 Machiavelli lost his job when the republican government, based on French support, was replaced by the absolutist regime of the Medici who had been restored to power with papal help. He was accused of serious crimes, was tortured, found innocent and later banished to a small farm near Florence. This is where he wrote, in enforced idleness, the Prince (1513) in praise of Lorenzo di Medici and the Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius (1521).
The Prince was interesting because while Machiavelli betrays republicanism in favor of absolutism, it reaffirms republicanism sentiment; yet this personal preference does not alter his basic views on the process of politics regardless of the form of its constitution: republican or despotic.
The Prince was a reflection not only of man’s political ambitions and passions but of man himself. Machiavelli portrayed real human beings – the shock of recognition has created around his work an aura of mixed horror and fascination… and it is hard to tell which is stronger.
“If one follows the value system of the state, the statesman may violate other value systems such as religion, ethics, or morality.”
Machiavelli thus develops the idea of the reasons of state, under which many acts are permissive, even obligatory, that would be considered heinous crimes if judged in the court of religion or morality.
“For where the very safety of the country depends upon the resolution to be taken, no consideration of justice or injustice, humanity or cruelty, nor of glory or shame, should be allowed to prevail. But putting all considerations aside, the only question should be: what course will save the life and liberty of the country?”
This amorality implies not the denial of moral values in all situations, but the affirmation that, in the specific situation of the statesman, the rules of power have priority over those of ethics and morality.
“Alexander VI did nothing else but deceive men. He thought of nothing else, and found the occasion for it; no man was ever more able to give assurances, or affirmed things with stronger oaths, and no man observed them less; however, he always succeeded in his deceptions, as he well knew this aspect of things.”
“Religion is a tool of influence and control.”
“Religion is poor man’s reason, ethics and morals put together.”
“Where religion exists, it is easy to introduce armies and discipline.”
But:
“As the observance of divine institutions is the cause of the greatness of the republics, so the disregard of them produces their ruin.”
Machiavelli is critical of Christianity because:
“It glorifies more the humble and contemplative man than the man of action.”
Machiavelli’s Pessimism:
“For how we live is so far removed from how we ought to live, that he who abandons what is done for what ought to be done, will rather to learn to bring about his own ruin than his preservation.”
“There are two methods of fighting, the one by the law, the other by force. The first method is that of men, the second of beasts; but as the first method is often insufficient, one must have recourse to the second. It is therefore necessary for a prince to know well how to use both.”
“The ruler must imitate the fox and the lion – because the lion cannot protect himself from traps and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves.”
“Should a ruler keep faith? A prudent ruler ought not to keep faith when by doing so it would be against his interest, and when the reasons which made him bind himself no longer exist. If men were all good, this precept would not be a good one; but as they are bad, and would not observe their faith in you, so you are not bound to keep faith with them.”
“To incur hatred without advantage is the greatest temerity and imprudence.”
